Dr. Annette F. Timm
Department of History
University of Calgary
UofC Navigation
Grammar
Introduction to this Grammar Sheet
Commas
Compound Sentences
Adverbial Clauses or Phrases
Adjectival Clauses or Phrases
Introductory Participial Phrases
Parenthetical Elements
Coordinate Adjectives
Complementary or Antithetical Elements
Series and Lists
Periods with Parentheses or Brackets
Quotations
Initial Capital or Lowercase
Introductory Phrases and Punctuation
Commas in Quotations
Periods with Quotation Marks
Double and Single Quotation Marks
Dashes and Hyphens
Introduction to this Grammar Sheet
Good writing is a combination of proper grammar and appropriate and elegant style. I will begin by providing a few pointers on style that are specific to historical writing. After this, I have provided a few extracts from The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th Edition (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1993) a very popular style manual.
I have chosen this reference, because it is extremely comprehensive and is probably the one that historians most frequently turn to. Besides, I own a copy and generally use it as my own reference, so referring to it is the best way of explaining my grammatical notations on your paper. In the English language, many points of style and even grammar can be debated. This is especially true if one wishes to take national differences into account. Where appropriate, I have inserted extra explanations of the differences between American and British English. (Any extra suggestions about how Canadian style might be unique would be greatly appreciated.) You may use either system, but you must be consistent throughout your paper. You are free to rely on any style manual that you like as long as consistency and the appropriate scholarly tone is achieved.
The decimal numbers refer to the actual Chicago Manual of Style passage. (You will note where I have left out more detailed explanations. If you want more examples, please refer to the original text.) I have selected those passages that seem particularly important for the writing of historical papers and that clarify points of grammar often misunderstood by students.
5.29: The comma, perhaps the most versatile of the punctuation of the punctuation marks, indicates the smallest interruption in continuity of thought or sentence structure. There are a few rules governing its use that have become almost obligatory. Aside from these, the use of the comma is mainly a matter of good judgment, with the ease of reading the end in view. [My emphasis!]
5.30: When the clauses of a compound sentence are joined by a conjunction, a comma is usually placed before the conjunction unless the clauses are short and closely related:
The two men quickly bolted the door, but the intruder had already entered through the window.
Are we really interested in preserving law and order, or are we only interested in preserving our own privileges?
But
Timothy played the guitar and Betty sang.
In contemporary writing, the comma is often omitted, but this open style should be followed only when there is little or no risk of misreading.
…
5.34: If a dependent clause is restrictive—that is, if it cannot be omitted without altering the meaning of the main clause—it should not be set off by comas. If it is nonrestrictive, it should be set off by commas:
We shall agree to the proposal if you accept our conditions.
Paul was astonished when he heard the terms.
At last she arrived, when the food was cold.
He didn't run, because he was afraid to move.
…
5.36: A dependent clause that precedes the main clause should usually be set off by a comma whether it is restrictive or nonrestrictive:
If you accept our conditions, we shall agree to the proposal.
Although he would have preferred to abstain, Paul voted for the proposal.
5.37: An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is frequently followed by a comma:
After reading the note, Henrietta turned pale.
Because of the unusual circumstances, the king sent his personal representative.
…
5.39: A comma should not be used after an introductory adverbial phrase that immediately precedes the verb it modifies.
Out of the automobile stepped a short man in a blue suit.
In the doorway stood a man with a summons.
5.41: An adjectival clause or phrase that follows a noun and restricts or limits the reference of the noun in a way that is essential to the meaning of the sentence should not be set off by commas; but an adjectival clause or phrase that is nonrestrictive or is purely descriptive, which could be dropped without changing the reference of the noun or the meaning of the sentence, is set off by commas:
The report that the committee submitted was well documented.
The report, which was well documented, was discussed with considerable emotion.
McFetridge, sitting comfortably before the fire, slowly and ceremoniously opened his mail.
The elderly woman sitting beside McFetridge was his nurse.
Babs was seen entering the Villa Sorrento, where Tom was staying.
…
Introductory Participial Phrases
5.43: An introductory participial phrase should be set off by a comma unless it immediately precedes the verb:
Having forgotten to notify his generals, the king arrived on the battlefield alone.
Exhausted by the morning's work, the archaeologists napped in the shade of the ancient wall.
But
Running along behind the wagon was the archduke himself!
5.44: Parenthetical elements that remain a close logical and syntactic relation to the rest of the sentence should be set off by commas; those whose relation to the rest of the sentence is more remote should be set off by dashes or parentheses …:
Wilcox, it was believed, had turned the entire affair over to his partner.
The Hooligan Report was, to say the least, a bombshell.
The members of the commission were , generally speaking, disposed to reject innovative measures.
Bardston—he is to be remembered for his outspokenness in the Wainscot affair—had asked for permission to address the assembly.
The Wintermitten theory (it had already been dropped by some of its staunchest early supporters) was dealt a decisive blow by the Kringelmeyer experiments.
…
5.51: Coordinate adjectives—that is, two or more adjectives each of which modifies the noun itself—are traditionally separated by commas:
Shelley had proved a faithful, sincere, and supportive friend.
Rocco had said that it was going to be a long, hot summer.
In the open style punctuation, the comma between coordinate adjectives is often omitted:
She returned from her room with a small yellow parasol.
Moskowitz said over and over again that it was going to be a long dark winter.
5.52: If the first adjective modifies the idea expressed by the combination of the second adjective and the noun, no comma should be used:
He had no patience with the traditional political institutions of his country.
Blance stood beside a tall blue spruce.
Complementary or Antithetical Elements
5.53: When two or more complementary or antithetical phrases refer to a single word following, the phrases should be separated from one another and from the following word by commas:
The harsh, though at the same time logical, conclusion provoked resentment among those affected.
The most provocative, if not the most important, part of the statement was saved until last.
This road leads away from, rather than toward, your destination.
He hopes to, and doubtless will, meet Caspar in Madrid.
…
5.57: In a series consisting of three or more elements, the elements are separated by commas. When a conjunction joins the last two elements in a series, a comma is used before the conjunction …:
Attending the conference were Farmer, Johnson, and Kendrick.
We have a choice of copper, silver, or gold.
The owner, the agent, and the tenant were having acrimonious discussion.
…
see also: Commas in Quotations
Periods with Parentheses or Brackets
5.14: When parentheses or brackets are used to enclose an independent sentence, the period belongs inside. When enclosed matter comes at the end of an including sentence, the period should be placed outside the parentheses or brackets:
Florelli insisted on rewriting the paragraph. (I had encountered this intransigence on another occasion.)
"She was determined never again to speak to him [Axelrod]."
If the enclosed matter is itself a grammatically complete sentence, its own terminal period is omitted:
Poncifall (by this time Erika had left the room) looked dejectedly at the ring she had dropped into his hand.
Poncifall looked at me with a desperate expression (Erika, it seems, had dropped a ring into his hand as she left the room).
10.9: Quotations may be incorporated in two ways: run in—that is, integrated into the text in the same type size as the text and enclosed in quotation marks (see example in 10.12)—or set off from the text, without quotation marks. Quotations of the latter sort may be set in smaller type, or with all lines indented from the left, or with unjustified lines (if text lines are justified), or with less space between lines than the text—or some combination of these typographical devices… Quotations set off from the text are called block quotations, extracts, or excerpts.
Run In or Set Off
10.10: Whether to run it or set off a quotation is commonly determined by its length. In general, quoted matter that runs to ten or more typed lines or that involves more than one paragraph is set off from the text; shorter quotations are usually run into the text…
[Dr. Timm's NOTE: For undergraduate essays of the type you will be writing for this course, all quotes over three lines should be blocked]
10.12: The skill with which fragmentary quotations are incorporated into a text reflects an author's awareness of syntax, verb tense, personal pronouns, and so forth. Only so much of the source as is necessary should be quoted, and the incorporating sentence should be phrased in such a way that the quoted words fit logically and grammatically into it. A master of felicitous quotation, Ronald S. Crane, provides many illustrations in his two-volume The Idea of the Humanities (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1967). Among them:
In short, there has been "almost a continual improvement" in all branches of human knowledge; and since this improvement has taken place not merely in the speculative sciences but likewise in those other forms of learning, such as politics, morality, and religion, "which apparently have a more immediate influence upon the welfare of civil life, and man's comfortable subsistence in it, " it seems to follow, "as a corollary, plainly deducible from a proposition already demonstrated," that human happiness has also increased. (1:281)
10.13: preposition or of an infinitive, for example, or a noun clause introduced by a conjunction such as that, if, or whether—may begin with a lowercase letter even though the original is a complete sentence beginning with a capital. It is preferable in scholarly works and essential in legal works and textual criticism, however, to retain the capital or to bracket the change (see 10.16).
Benjamin Franklin admonishes us to "plough deep while sluggards sleep."
or
Benjamin Franklin admonishes us to "Plough deep…"
When the quotation has a more remote syntactic relation to the rest of the sentence—when it is merely modified by the rest of the sentence…, or when it is used as discourse,… the initial capital is always retained…:
As Franklin advised, "Plough deep while sluggards sleep."
Franklin advised, "Plough deep…"
…
10.14: Although the initial capital of a block quotation may be lowercased if the syntax of the introductory text encourages it, it is also acceptable, perhaps preferable, especially in scholarly and legal works and works of textual criticism, to retain the capital, as in the following example involving a quotation from Aristotle's Politics…:
In discussing the reasons for political disturbances, Aristotle observes that
Revolutions also break out when opposite parties, e.g. the rich and the people, are equally balanced, and there is little or no middle class; for, if either party were manifestly superior, the other would not risk an attack upon them. And, for this reason, those who are eminent in virtue usually do not stir up insurrections, always a minority. …
Also acceptable
In discussing the reasons for political disturbances, Aristotle observes that
revolutions also break out…
Another possibility, of course, is to omit the that in the introduction and substitute a colon, in which case the initial capital remains above suspicion.
…
10.16: In legal works and textual criticism, and usually in scholarly works, any change in capitalization should be indicated by brackets…:
[r]evolutions…
[T]hose…
Introductory Phrases and Punctuation
10.17: A formal introductory phrase, such as thus or the following, is usually followed by a colon
The role of the author has been variously described. Henry Fielding…, defines it thus: "An author ought to consider himself, not as a gentlemen…"
10.18: Such introductory phrases as
Professor Jones writes:
She said (stated, observed, etc.):
are often awkward and redundant. A sensitive writer will avoid them.
10.19: A quotation consisting of more than one complete sentence is often introduced by a colon if the text preceding the quotation is not a complete sentence but a phrase like
As the president of the council suggested:
And again:
A comma is also acceptable in such a case, however, and if the quotation is only one sentence, a comma is preferable. If the introductory text is a complete sentence, either a colon or the normal terminal punctuation may be used:
The president of the council suggested an alternative. [followed by quote]
What, might you ask was the alternative? [followed by quote]
The president's suggestion provoked an acrimonious response: [followed by quote]
5.71: Quotations—whether sentences, phrases, or words—incorporated within sentences are punctuated according to the grammatical function they perform within the sentence. Quotations serving as subjects, predicate nominatives, or predicate adjectives, for example, are not set off by comas unless they also serve as dialogue…:
"Under no circumstances" was her rather surprising reply.
Morgenstern's favorite evasion was "If only I had the time!"
The ambassador was "not available for comment."
Spivekovski reported that Morgenstern was not only "indisposed" but also "in a bad temper."
Note that if the quotation is a sentence, I ordinarily begins with a capital letter; if it is a fragment, it does not.
American Style
5.11: When a declarative or an imperative sentence is enclosed in quotation marks, the period ending the sentence is, in what may be called the American style, placed inside the closing quotation mark. If the quoted sentence is included within another sentence, its terminal period is omitted or replaced by a comma, as required, unless it comes at the end of the including sentence. In the latter case, a single period serves both sentences and is placed inside the closing quotation mark.
"There is no reason to inform the president."
"It won't be necessary to inform the president," said Emerson.
Emerson replied nervously, "The president doesn't wish to be informed about such things."
5.12: … In those rare circumstances when confusion is likely, the period not only may, but perhaps should, be placed after the quotation mark.
…
The first line of Le Beau's warning to Orlando has long been regarded as reading "Good sir, I do in friendship counsel you".
Turner's memory suddenly faltered when he came to the speech beginning "Good sir, I do in friendship counsel you."
The …example above,… may be imagined as being included in a work of textual criticism, the location of the period warns against the incorrect assumption that the quoted line ends with a period. In the final example, however, which may be imagined as forming a part of an account of an actor's performance, the exquisitely technical question of the position of the period is largely irrelevant and may therefore yield to "American practice."
British versus American Style
5.13: The British style of positioning periods and commas in relation to the closing quotation mark is based on the same logic that in the American system governs the placement of question marks and exclamation points: if they belong to the quoted material, they are placed within the closing quotation mark; if they belong to the including sentence as a whole, they are placed after the quotation mark….
A. Timm's additional explanation of the British style:
If the sentence you are quoting reads:
Those men are beating that child.
The quoted sentence might read:
The woman cried, 'Those men are beating that child.'
The period after child belongs to the original sentence, therefore it goes inside the quotation mark. But, if the sentence you are quoting reads:
Those men are beating that child in the park.
Then the quoting sentence would read:
The woman cried, 'Those men are beating that child'.
Since in this case the original did not have a period after child.
Double and Single Quotation Marks
10.26: Quoted words, phrases, and sentences that run into the text are enclosed in double quotation marks. (Note that in the fields of linguistics and philosophy single marks are used in certain contexts to enclose individual words or letters…) Single quotation marks enclose quotations within quotations; double marks, quotations with these; and so on:
"Don't be absurd!" said Henry. "To say that 'I mean what I say' is the same as 'I say what I mean' is to be as confused as Alice at the Mad Hatter's tea party. You remember what the Hatter said to her: 'Not the same thing a bit! Why you might as well say that "I see what I eat is the same thing as "I eat what I see"!'"
British practice is often, though not always, the reverse: single marks are used first, then double, and so on.
5.105: There are several kinds of dashes, differing in length. There are en dashes, em dashes, and 2- and 3-em dashes ([used to indicate missing letters or whole words missing in a quote] see 5.115-19). Each kind of dash has its own uses. The most commonly used is the em dash. …
em dash: —
en dash: –
hyphen: -
Em Dash
5.106: A dash or a pair of dashes is used to denote a sudden break in thought that causes an abrupt change in sentence structure…:
"Will he—can he—obtain the necessary signatures?" Mills said pointedly.
The Platonic world of the static and the Hegelian world of process—how great the contrast!
…
The chancellor—he had been awake half the night waiting in vain for a reply—came down to breakfast in an angry mood.
…
Amplifying, Explanatory, and Digressive Elements
5.107: An element added to give emphasis or explanation by expanding a phrase occurring in the main clause may be introduced by a dash…:
He had spent several hours carefully explaining the operation—an operation that would, he hoped, put an end to the resistance
…
En Dash
5.115: The en dash is half the length of an em dash and longer than a hyphen:
em dash: —
en dash: –
hyphen: -
(In typing, a hyphen is used for an en dash, two hyphens for an em dash…) The principle use of the en dash is to connect continuing, or inclusive, numbers—dates, times, or reference numbers.
1968–72
May–June 1967 pp. 38–45
13 May 1965–9 June 1966
but
from 1968 to 1972 (never from 1968-70)
from May to June 1967
between 1968 and 1970 (never between 1968-70)
…
Hyphen
5.120: The hyphen is used to separate numbers that are not inclusive, such as telephone numbers and social security numbers…
5.121: The use of the hyphen in compound words and in word division is discussed in chapter 6, especially 6.32-42, 6.43-58, and table 6.1.